Investigating the Applicability in Emergency Situations of Terra Preta Sanitation System using Lactic Acid Bacteria
Keywords:
Emergency situation, Lactic Acid Bacteria, Lacto-Fermented Sludge, Terra Preta Sanitation, Urine.Abstract
LAB failed to keep lacto-fermented sludge’s pH (6.7) and TAN (11.8mg/l) below 4.2 and within 15-30 mg/l respectively. This is despite registering promising results in pH (9.6) and TAN (16.6mg/l) for urine. The results challenged on-site LAB procedure in terms of stabilizing and sanitising faecal sludge possibly due to differences in sludge age, charcoal addition and different environmental factors. Therefore TPS combined with LAB inoculation could not be the best sanitation option for an immediate phase but rather second and third stages of emergency situations.
Malawi experiences emergency situations whose response does not prioritize faecal sludge management challenges. This research adopted a redefined Terra Preta Sanitation (TPS) system that replaced vermicomposting with Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) inoculation. The research aimed at determining possibility of on-site LAB procedure upscalling and safe separation of urine and lacto-fermented sludge as useful agricultural by-products. The study site was Crown Ministries, Blantyre, Malawi. A fermented mixture of15L pasteurized milk, 30ml of Yakult and 1.5g cane molasses was added to a 200L faecal sludge collection drum before use. After defecation, 100cm3 charcoal and 2g molasses were added. Urine was anaerobically collected in 50L drum. Random grab samples results indicated that COD for urine (868.4mg/l) and Lacto-fermented sludge (431.2mg/l) were above 60mg/l Malawi Standard and E. coli (1.05 x107) and Total coliforms (2.18 x 107) for Lacto-Fermented Sludge went above <103 CFU/100ml.
References
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[16] Hubert OLBRICH, (2006) “The Molasses.” Institut für Zuckerindustrie, Berlin (Germany) Available:http://www.biotechnologie-kempe.de/Molasses_OLBRICH.pdf
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[18] J. Spit, D. Malambo, M. Gonzalez, H. Nobela, L. Pooter, and K. Anderson (2014) “Emergency Sanitation Faecal Sludge Treatment Field-work Summary.” Field Summary Report. WASTE, Nieuwehaven 201 2801 CW Gouda The Netherlands.
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[19] ISO 9308-1 (2014) “Chromocult® Coliform Agar to be used to detect and enumerate E. coli and coliform bacteria in water” Available:http://www.virtual-lab.biz/data/products/documents/209/DS_EMD_Chromocult_Coliform_ FINAL.pdf
[20] Malawi Bureau of Standards Board (2013) “Malawi Standard 539: Industrial effluent Tolerance limits for discharge into inland surface waters” (ICS 13.030.20).
[21] Arie Havelaar, J. Ursula. Blumenthal, Martin Strauss, David Kay and L. Jamie Bartram (2001) “Guidelines: the current position” In: Water Quality: Guidelines, Standards and Health. World Health Organization (WHO). IWA Publishing, London, UK. ISBN 1 900222 28 0 (IWA Publishing). ISBN 92 4 154533 X (World Health Organization).
Available:http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/iwachap2.pdf
[21] B. Glaser, (2007) “Prehistorically modified soils of central Amazonia: A model for sustainable agriculture in the twenty-first century.” Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Biol.Sci., [On- line].362, pp.187–196.
[22] H. Jönsson, and B. Vinnerås, (2007) “Experiences and Suggestions for Collection Systems for Source-Separated Urine and Faeces.” Water Science and Technology, [On- line]. 56. pp. 71-76. Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.55
[23] B. Vinnerås, A. Nordin, C. Niwagaba and K. Nyberg (2008) “Inactivation of Bacteria and Viruses in Human Urine Depending on the Temperature and Dilution Rate”. Water Research [On- line]. 42. pp. 4067-4074. Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2008.06.014
[24] H. Kirchmann and S. Pettersson (1995) “Human Urine – Chemical Composition and Fertiliser Use Efficiency”. Fertiliser Research. [On- line]. 40. pp 149-154.
[25] Stefan Deegener, Sascha Gabizon and Margriet Samwel (2006) Urine Diverting Toilets Principles, Operation and Construction; Women in Europe for a Common Future; Institute of Wastewater Management. Hamburg University of Technology The Netherlands / Germany. Available:http://www.permacultuurnederland.org/permacultuurtk/urinedivert.pdf
[26] J. M. Makaya, A Savadogo, M. K. Somda, J. B. Bour, N. Barro, and A. S. Traoré (2014, May.) “Quality of Human Urine Used as Fertilizer: Case of an Ecological Sanitation System in Ouagadougou Peri-Urban Areas-Burkina Faso” journal of Environmental Protection. [On- line] 5, pp. 467-474 Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2014.56049
[27] S.A. Esrey, J, G. Gough, D. R. Rapaport, T. S. Sawyer, M. Simpson-Hébert, and J. V. Vargas et al., (1998) “Ecological Sanitation.” SIDA, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. Stockholm
[28] Ecosan Services Foundation (ESF) and Seecon Gmbh (n.d.) “Training Material on Urine-Diversion Dehydration Toilets and Urine Management” Ecosan Services Foundation Available: http://www.ecosanservices.org/pdf/UDD-ToiletsTraining%20material.pdf
[2] R. Misomali. (2009).”Emergency Management In Malawi: A Work in Progress With a Strong Foundation.” Available:https://www.google.com/search?sclient=psy-b&biw=1207&bih=533&noj=1&q= EM-DAT%2C++malawi&oq=EM-DAT%2C++malawi&gs_l=serp.12...200918.201534. 1.203543.4.4.0.0.0.0.1860.1860.8-1.1.0.msedr...0...1c.1.64.serp..4.0.0.qAglUXmajNE
[3] International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2015, Jul) “Malawi: Floods Emergency appeal (MDRMW011), Six Month Operations Update” Available:http://reliefweb.int/report/malawi/malawi-floods-emergency-appeal-mdrmw011-six-month-operations-update
[4] S. D. Chabvungma, J. Mawenda and G. Kambauwa (n.d.) “Drought Conditions and Management Strategies in Malawi” Available:http://www.ais.unwater.org/ais/pluginfile.php/601/mod_page/content/27/Malawi.pdf
[5] R. A. Fenner, P. M. Guthrie, and E. Piano (2007). “Process selection for sanitation systems and wastewater treatment in refugee camps during disaster-relief situations.’’ Water and Environment Journal. [On- line] 21. pp. 252–264.
[6] LSHTM, (2012). “Toilets For Health” A Report By The London School Of Hygiene And Tropical Medicine In Collaboration With Domesto.
Available:https://www.lshtm.ac.uk/newsevents/features/2012/toilets_for_health.pdf [Jul. 23, 2015]
[7] B. Wisner, and J. Adams (2002b). “Sanitation,” In: Environmental Health in Emergencies and Disasters A Practical Guide. WHO. ISBN 92 4 154541 0 [Apr.12, 2014] Available:http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/emergencies/em2002chap8.pdf?ua=1
[8] International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, “Annual Report 2010” (Annual Report). CH-1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. 2010. Available:http://www.ifrcmedia.org/assets/pages/annual-report/resources/IFRC-Annual-report-2010-English.pdf [May.12, 2014]
[9] The Johns Hopkins and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, (2008). “Water, sanitation and hygiene in emergencies,” In: Public Health Guide for Emergencies. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Geneva 19 Switzerland. [On- line] pp. 372–441. Available:http://www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-and-institutes/center-for-refugee-and-disaster-response/publications_tools/publications/_CRDR_ICRC_Public_Health_Guide_Book/Forward.pd
[10] P. N. S. Mnkeni and L. M. Austin (2009) “Fertiliser value of human manure from pilot urine-diversion toilets” Water SA [On- line]. 35 (1) pp. 133 – 138. ISSN 0378-4738. ISSN 1816-7950 Available:http://www.protosh2o.org/sites/default/files/library_assets/361.1_MNK_E21_fertiliser_value.pdf [May. 12, 2015].
[11] S. De Gisi, L. Petta and C. Wendland (2014) “History and Technology of Terra Preta Sanitation.” Sustainability. [On- line]. 6 pp.1328-1345; doi:10.3390/su6031328SSWM Available:http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB0QFjAAahUKEwiO0vSkgvHGAhXFB9sKHeLjD8Q&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F2071-1050%2F6%2F3%2F1328%2Fpdf&ei=W76wVc64FMWP7Abix7-gDA&usg=AFQjCNHVcoikW7A9Qo1Htcdjm0QEMMiInw [Jan. 29, 2014].
[12] H. Factura, T. Bettendorf, C. Buzie, H. Pieplow, J. Reckin and R. Otterpohl (2010) “Terra Preta Sanitation: re-discovered from an ancient Amazonian civilisation - integrating sanitation, bio-waste management and agriculture” Water Science & Technology. Available:http://www.terra-preta-sanitation.net/cms/fileadmin/publications/pdf/Terra_Preta_Sanitation_WS_T_2010.pdf
[13] D. Malambo, (2014) “Sanitising Faecal Sludge using Lactic Acid Bacteria in Emergency” MSc Thesis, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherland. Available:http://emergencysanitationproject.wikispaces.com/file/view/MWI+SE+2014-21.Dennis+Hanjalika+Malambo.pdf [Feb. 25, 2015].
[14] C.E. Brewer, and R.C. Brown, (2012) “Biochar.” Comprehensive Renewable Energy, [On- line]. 5. pp. 357–384.
[15] D. Lotter, and V. Clarke, (2011) “The Pyrolytic Stove: The beginning of the end of deforestation in Tanzania?” Available:http://donlotter.net/Pyrolytic_stove_Africa_Lotter_talk.pdf
[16] Hubert OLBRICH, (2006) “The Molasses.” Institut für Zuckerindustrie, Berlin (Germany) Available:http://www.biotechnologie-kempe.de/Molasses_OLBRICH.pdf
[17]Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management. Available online: http://www.sswm.info/ category/implementation-tools/water-use/hardware/toilet-systems/terra-preta-toilet [Jan. 29, 2014].
[18] J. Spit, D. Malambo, M. Gonzalez, H. Nobela, L. Pooter, and K. Anderson (2014) “Emergency Sanitation Faecal Sludge Treatment Field-work Summary.” Field Summary Report. WASTE, Nieuwehaven 201 2801 CW Gouda The Netherlands.
Available:http://www.speedkits.eu/sites/www.speedkits.eu/files/20140613%20Field%20Trial%20Report.pdf [Dec. 12, 2014].
[19] ISO 9308-1 (2014) “Chromocult® Coliform Agar to be used to detect and enumerate E. coli and coliform bacteria in water” Available:http://www.virtual-lab.biz/data/products/documents/209/DS_EMD_Chromocult_Coliform_ FINAL.pdf
[20] Malawi Bureau of Standards Board (2013) “Malawi Standard 539: Industrial effluent Tolerance limits for discharge into inland surface waters” (ICS 13.030.20).
[21] Arie Havelaar, J. Ursula. Blumenthal, Martin Strauss, David Kay and L. Jamie Bartram (2001) “Guidelines: the current position” In: Water Quality: Guidelines, Standards and Health. World Health Organization (WHO). IWA Publishing, London, UK. ISBN 1 900222 28 0 (IWA Publishing). ISBN 92 4 154533 X (World Health Organization).
Available:http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/iwachap2.pdf
[21] B. Glaser, (2007) “Prehistorically modified soils of central Amazonia: A model for sustainable agriculture in the twenty-first century.” Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Biol.Sci., [On- line].362, pp.187–196.
[22] H. Jönsson, and B. Vinnerås, (2007) “Experiences and Suggestions for Collection Systems for Source-Separated Urine and Faeces.” Water Science and Technology, [On- line]. 56. pp. 71-76. Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.55
[23] B. Vinnerås, A. Nordin, C. Niwagaba and K. Nyberg (2008) “Inactivation of Bacteria and Viruses in Human Urine Depending on the Temperature and Dilution Rate”. Water Research [On- line]. 42. pp. 4067-4074. Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2008.06.014
[24] H. Kirchmann and S. Pettersson (1995) “Human Urine – Chemical Composition and Fertiliser Use Efficiency”. Fertiliser Research. [On- line]. 40. pp 149-154.
[25] Stefan Deegener, Sascha Gabizon and Margriet Samwel (2006) Urine Diverting Toilets Principles, Operation and Construction; Women in Europe for a Common Future; Institute of Wastewater Management. Hamburg University of Technology The Netherlands / Germany. Available:http://www.permacultuurnederland.org/permacultuurtk/urinedivert.pdf
[26] J. M. Makaya, A Savadogo, M. K. Somda, J. B. Bour, N. Barro, and A. S. Traoré (2014, May.) “Quality of Human Urine Used as Fertilizer: Case of an Ecological Sanitation System in Ouagadougou Peri-Urban Areas-Burkina Faso” journal of Environmental Protection. [On- line] 5, pp. 467-474 Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2014.56049
[27] S.A. Esrey, J, G. Gough, D. R. Rapaport, T. S. Sawyer, M. Simpson-Hébert, and J. V. Vargas et al., (1998) “Ecological Sanitation.” SIDA, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. Stockholm
[28] Ecosan Services Foundation (ESF) and Seecon Gmbh (n.d.) “Training Material on Urine-Diversion Dehydration Toilets and Urine Management” Ecosan Services Foundation Available: http://www.ecosanservices.org/pdf/UDD-ToiletsTraining%20material.pdf
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Published
2016-06-12
How to Cite
Kamwani, F., Thole, B., Greya, W., Anderson, K., Casilla, G. H. M., Spit, J., & der Ham, J. V. (2016). Investigating the Applicability in Emergency Situations of Terra Preta Sanitation System using Lactic Acid Bacteria. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences, 20(1), 200–212. Retrieved from https://asrjetsjournal.org/index.php/American_Scientific_Journal/article/view/1692
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