A Socio- economic Analysis on the Gender Wage Gap Among Agricultural Laborers in Rural Sri Lanka
Keywords:
Gender wage gap, Informal sector, Poverty, Sri Lanka, Women.Abstract
This study has examined the salience of a gender wage gap in a developing country context, through an empirical study of differentials in wages across women and men in the informal agricultural sector of dry zone of Southern Sri Lanka. The study also explores the possible gap, root causes and relative impacts of the pay gap on labour household during three year period of 2011- 2013. An interview assisted questionnaire survey was conducted to collect primary data from a sample of 102 daily labours. Three broad areas were examined using various methodological approaches to analyse the data: gender differences in daily wages, possible explanations for the gender wage gap, and impact of gender wage gap on the standard of living in labour households. The study found that there is a considerable gender wage gap in the Southern Sri Lanka. Differences in the gap are visible across study locations and the gap has narrowed in the recent past. Social factors such as the undervaluation of women’s work are the main explanatory factors of gender wage gap. One third of income poverty of a labour household can be explained through gender wage gap and it has negative effect on living standards of the people.
References
[1]. P. Todd., & J. Eveline . Report on the Review of the Gender pay Gap in Western Australia. Australia: University of Western Australia, 2004.
[2]. G. Yoo. Women in the Work Place: Gender and Wage Differentials. Social Indicators Research, 2003, 63(1), pp.367-385.
[3]. U. Pannilage. Role of Women in Rural Development. Gamana Guarantee Ltd, Colombo, 2013, pp.21-54.
[4]. R.Winter-Ebmer, & D. Weichselbaumer. The Effect of Competition and Equal Treatment Laws on Gender Wage Differentials. Economic Policy, 2007, 22(4), pp. 235-287.
[5]. World Bank. Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington-DC: World Bank, 2009.
[6]. Food and Agriculture Organisation. (2010). Gender dimensions of agricultural and rural employment: Differentiated pathways out of poverty Status, trends and gaps. FAO Corporate Documentary Prosperity. Available: http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1638e/i1638e00.htm
[7]. Food and Agriculture Organisation. (2011). Women in agriculture: Closing the gender gap for development. FAO Corporate Documentary Prosperity. Available: http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e01.pdf.
[8]. International Labour Organisation. Global Wage Report 2014/15: Wages and income inequality. Geneva: International Labour Office [ILO], 2015.
[9]. C. Goldin. A grand gender convergence: Its last chapter. American Economic Review, 2014, 104(4), pp. 1091–1119.
[10]. C. Zhihong, G. Ying, L. Huiwen, & W. Chi. Globalization and gender wage inequality in China. World Development, 44, 2013, pp 256–66.
[11]. D. Grimshaw. What do we know about low-wage work and low-wage workers? Analysing the definitions, patterns, causes and consequences in international perspective. Geneva : ILO, Conditions of Work and Employment Series 28, 2011.
[12]. A. Heinze, & E. Wolf. The intra-firm gender wage gap: a new view on wage differentials based on linked employer-employee data. Journal of Population Economics, 23,2010, pp 851–879.
[13]. J. Rubery. Pay equity, minimum wage and equality at work, In Focus Programme on Promoting the Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. (Working Paper DECLARATION/WP/19/2003). Geneva: ILO, 2003.
[14]. D. Bosworth, P. Dawkins, & T. Stromback. The Economics of the Labour Market. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman, 1996.
[15]. P. Cahuc, & A. Zylberberg. Labour Economics. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 2004.
[16]. J. O’Neill. The Gender Gap in Wages’, circa 2000. The American Economic Review, 93(2), 2003, pp.309-314.
[17]. J.G. Altonji, & R.M. Blank. Race and Gender in the Labour Market. In O. Ashenfelter & D. Card (Eds), Handbook of Labour Economics, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers BV, Vol.3 C, 1999, pp. 3143-3259.
[18]. F.D. Blau, & L.M. Khan. Gender Differences in Pay. Journal of Economic Perspective, 14(4), 2000,pp.75-99.
[19]. F.D. Blau, & L.M. Kahn. Understanding International Differences in the Gender Pay Gap. Journal of Labour Economics, 21(1), 2003, pp.106-144.
[20]. N. Forsythe, R.P. Korzeniewicz, N. Majid, G. Weathers, & V. Durrant. Gender Inequalities, Economic Growth and Economic Reform: A preliminary Longitudinal Evaluation. Geneva: Employment Paper, International Labour Office, 2003.
[21]. World Bank. Engendering Development. Washington-DC : World Bank, 2002.
[22]. Eurofound. (2010). Addressing the gender pay gap: Government and social partner actions. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Available: https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2010/working-conditions-industrial-relations/addressing-the-gender-pay-gap-government-and-social-partner-actions.
[23]. P.J. Montiel, P.R. Agenor, & N.U. Haque. Informal Financial Markets in Developing Countries: A Macroeconomic Analysis. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1993.
[24]. P. Renoy, S. Ivarsson, O. van der Wusten-Gritsai, & E. Meijer. Undeclared Work in an Enlarged Union an Analysis of Undeclared Work: An In-Depth Study of Specific Items. Brussels: European Commission, 2004.
[25]. C.C. Williams & J. Round. Gender Variations in the Nature of Undeclared Work: Evidence from Ukraine. Sociological Research Online, 2008, 13(4). doi:10.5153/sro.1783.
[26]. S. Silveira, & A. Matosas. Gender and The Informal Economy in Latin America: New Challenges and Possible Answers for Labour Training Policies. In R. Maclean, D. Wilson, & M. Singh (Eds.). Meeting Basic Learning Needs in the Informal sector Integrating Education and Training for Decent Work (pp.91-118). Netherlands :Springer, 2005, pp. 91-118.
[27]. S. Ahmed, & P.A. Maitra. Distributional Analysis of the Gender Wage Gap in Bangladesh. The journal of development studies, 2015, 51(11), pp.1444-1458.
[28]. A. Davila, & J. Pagan . Gender Pay and Occupational Attainment Gaps in Costa Rica and El Salawador: A Relative Comparison of the Late 1980s. Review of Development Economics, 3(2), 1990, pp.215-230.
[29]. A. Javed, & A. Birjees, A. Estimating the Gender Wage Gap in Rawalpindi City. Journal of Development Studies, 29(2), 1993, pp. 365-376.
[2]. G. Yoo. Women in the Work Place: Gender and Wage Differentials. Social Indicators Research, 2003, 63(1), pp.367-385.
[3]. U. Pannilage. Role of Women in Rural Development. Gamana Guarantee Ltd, Colombo, 2013, pp.21-54.
[4]. R.Winter-Ebmer, & D. Weichselbaumer. The Effect of Competition and Equal Treatment Laws on Gender Wage Differentials. Economic Policy, 2007, 22(4), pp. 235-287.
[5]. World Bank. Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington-DC: World Bank, 2009.
[6]. Food and Agriculture Organisation. (2010). Gender dimensions of agricultural and rural employment: Differentiated pathways out of poverty Status, trends and gaps. FAO Corporate Documentary Prosperity. Available: http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1638e/i1638e00.htm
[7]. Food and Agriculture Organisation. (2011). Women in agriculture: Closing the gender gap for development. FAO Corporate Documentary Prosperity. Available: http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e01.pdf.
[8]. International Labour Organisation. Global Wage Report 2014/15: Wages and income inequality. Geneva: International Labour Office [ILO], 2015.
[9]. C. Goldin. A grand gender convergence: Its last chapter. American Economic Review, 2014, 104(4), pp. 1091–1119.
[10]. C. Zhihong, G. Ying, L. Huiwen, & W. Chi. Globalization and gender wage inequality in China. World Development, 44, 2013, pp 256–66.
[11]. D. Grimshaw. What do we know about low-wage work and low-wage workers? Analysing the definitions, patterns, causes and consequences in international perspective. Geneva : ILO, Conditions of Work and Employment Series 28, 2011.
[12]. A. Heinze, & E. Wolf. The intra-firm gender wage gap: a new view on wage differentials based on linked employer-employee data. Journal of Population Economics, 23,2010, pp 851–879.
[13]. J. Rubery. Pay equity, minimum wage and equality at work, In Focus Programme on Promoting the Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. (Working Paper DECLARATION/WP/19/2003). Geneva: ILO, 2003.
[14]. D. Bosworth, P. Dawkins, & T. Stromback. The Economics of the Labour Market. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman, 1996.
[15]. P. Cahuc, & A. Zylberberg. Labour Economics. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 2004.
[16]. J. O’Neill. The Gender Gap in Wages’, circa 2000. The American Economic Review, 93(2), 2003, pp.309-314.
[17]. J.G. Altonji, & R.M. Blank. Race and Gender in the Labour Market. In O. Ashenfelter & D. Card (Eds), Handbook of Labour Economics, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers BV, Vol.3 C, 1999, pp. 3143-3259.
[18]. F.D. Blau, & L.M. Khan. Gender Differences in Pay. Journal of Economic Perspective, 14(4), 2000,pp.75-99.
[19]. F.D. Blau, & L.M. Kahn. Understanding International Differences in the Gender Pay Gap. Journal of Labour Economics, 21(1), 2003, pp.106-144.
[20]. N. Forsythe, R.P. Korzeniewicz, N. Majid, G. Weathers, & V. Durrant. Gender Inequalities, Economic Growth and Economic Reform: A preliminary Longitudinal Evaluation. Geneva: Employment Paper, International Labour Office, 2003.
[21]. World Bank. Engendering Development. Washington-DC : World Bank, 2002.
[22]. Eurofound. (2010). Addressing the gender pay gap: Government and social partner actions. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Available: https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2010/working-conditions-industrial-relations/addressing-the-gender-pay-gap-government-and-social-partner-actions.
[23]. P.J. Montiel, P.R. Agenor, & N.U. Haque. Informal Financial Markets in Developing Countries: A Macroeconomic Analysis. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1993.
[24]. P. Renoy, S. Ivarsson, O. van der Wusten-Gritsai, & E. Meijer. Undeclared Work in an Enlarged Union an Analysis of Undeclared Work: An In-Depth Study of Specific Items. Brussels: European Commission, 2004.
[25]. C.C. Williams & J. Round. Gender Variations in the Nature of Undeclared Work: Evidence from Ukraine. Sociological Research Online, 2008, 13(4). doi:10.5153/sro.1783.
[26]. S. Silveira, & A. Matosas. Gender and The Informal Economy in Latin America: New Challenges and Possible Answers for Labour Training Policies. In R. Maclean, D. Wilson, & M. Singh (Eds.). Meeting Basic Learning Needs in the Informal sector Integrating Education and Training for Decent Work (pp.91-118). Netherlands :Springer, 2005, pp. 91-118.
[27]. S. Ahmed, & P.A. Maitra. Distributional Analysis of the Gender Wage Gap in Bangladesh. The journal of development studies, 2015, 51(11), pp.1444-1458.
[28]. A. Davila, & J. Pagan . Gender Pay and Occupational Attainment Gaps in Costa Rica and El Salawador: A Relative Comparison of the Late 1980s. Review of Development Economics, 3(2), 1990, pp.215-230.
[29]. A. Javed, & A. Birjees, A. Estimating the Gender Wage Gap in Rawalpindi City. Journal of Development Studies, 29(2), 1993, pp. 365-376.
Downloads
Published
2017-04-23
How to Cite
Pannilage, U. (2017). A Socio- economic Analysis on the Gender Wage Gap Among Agricultural Laborers in Rural Sri Lanka. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences, 30(1), 338–350. Retrieved from https://asrjetsjournal.org/index.php/American_Scientific_Journal/article/view/2867
Issue
Section
Articles
License
Authors who submit papers with this journal agree to the following terms.
